Motivation
High-Yield Summary
- Motivation is the driving force behind behavior — extrinsic (external reward/punishment) or intrinsic (internal interest/enjoyment); the two often co-occur.
- Instinct Theory (James, McDougall): behavior driven by innate, fixed patterns. Lost influence as instinct lists kept growing without clear testability.
- Arousal Theory + Yerkes-Dodson law: performance vs. arousal is an inverted U. Optimal arousal depends on the task — lower for complex/cognitive tasks, higher for simple/physical tasks.
- Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull, 1943): motivation = eliminating uncomfortable internal tension to restore homeostasis. Primary drives (food, water, warmth) are biological; secondary drives are learned/emotional.
- Need-Based Theories: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization, prepotent not rigid) and Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan: autonomy, competence, relatedness — all three required).
- Incentive Theory (external rewards pull behavior) and Expectancy-Value Theory (Atkinson: motivation = expectation of success × value of succeeding) — contrast with drive reduction's internal 'push.'
- Opponent-Process Theory (Solomon & Corbit, 1974): repeated drug use → body's compensatory counter-reaction outlasts the drug's direct effect → explains tolerance and withdrawal (opposite symptoms to the drug itself).
- Sexual motivation: driven by hormones (estrogens, progesterone, androgens), smell, pleasure/cognition, and culture. Chivers' research: physiological arousal and subjective experience can diverge.
Key Terms
- Extrinsic motivation
- Driven by external rewards or avoidance of punishment.
- Intrinsic motivation
- Driven by internal interest or enjoyment of the task itself.
- Drive
- Internal state of tension that activates goal-focused behavior (unlike an instinct, no external trigger needed).
- Homeostasis
- Regulation of the internal environment toward a stable, optimal set of conditions, typically via negative feedback.
- Tolerance
- Decrease in a drug's perceived effect over time as the body's compensatory response strengthens.
Push vs. Pull
| Drive Reduction Theory (push) | Incentive Theory (pull) |
|---|---|
| Internal tension (hunger, thirst) pushes behavior toward relief | External reward pulls behavior toward it, independent of any internal deficit |
| Example: eating because you're hungry | Example: eating dessert you don't need because it looks appealing |
Maslow's Hierarchy vs. Self-Determination Theory
| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs | Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan) |
|---|---|
| 5 prioritized levels: physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem → self-actualization | 3 universal needs, no hierarchy: autonomy, competence, relatedness |
| Unmet lower need becomes the top motivational priority (prepotency, not a rigid sequence) | All three needs must be met for healthy relationships with self and others |
Common MCAT Trap
- Drive Reduction (push, internal tension) vs. Incentive Theory (pull, external reward) are frequently set up as contrasting explanations for the same behavior — identify the direction of causation.
- Yerkes-Dodson: more arousal isn't automatically better. Optimal level depends on the task — lower arousal for complex/cognitive, higher for simple/physical.
- Maslow's hierarchy describes prepotency (a general priority pattern), not an absolute unbreakable sequence.
- Opponent-Process Theory explains the compensatory counter-reaction (tolerance/withdrawal), not the drug's initial direct effect — don't mix up which process the theory describes.
Quick Recall
A person eats dessert despite not being hungry, because it looks appealing. Which theory explains this — Drive Reduction or Incentive?
Is lower or higher arousal optimal for a complex cognitive task, per Yerkes-Dodson?
What does Opponent-Process Theory say causes withdrawal symptoms?
Name the three needs in Self-Determination Theory.
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