Sociology: Theories and Institutions
High-Yield Summary
- Functionalism: society as an organism, parts work in harmony (Merton). Function = beneficial, dysfunction = harmful, manifest function = intended, latent function = unintended-but-beneficial side effect.
- Conflict theory: social order comes from power differentials and competition for resources, not harmony — the opposite explanation from functionalism.
- Symbolic interactionism (Mead, named by Blumer): interaction through shared symbols (language, gesture); learning them = acculturation. Social constructionism (Berger & Luckmann): social realities (justice, money, gender roles) built via collective agreement, shift over time.
- Rational choice theory: individual cost-benefit decision-making. Exchange theory (Homans) = rational choice scoped to groups, tied to operant conditioning (approval reinforces behavior). Feminist theory: explains gender-based inequality — gender roles, glass ceiling.
- 5 social institutions: family, education, religion, government/economy, healthcare/medicine. Physicians are mandated reporters for child and elder abuse (not domestic abuse between competent adults — offer resources instead).
- Education: hidden curriculum (norms/attitudes taught alongside formal content); teacher expectancy (Rosenthal & Jacobson) = self-fulfilling prophecy. Religion: denomination → sect → cult is a spectrum of distance/extremity, not 3 unrelated categories; secularization vs. fundamentalism are opposite trends.
- Beauchamp & Childress 4 principles of biomedical ethics: beneficence (act in patient's interest), nonmaleficence (do no harm), respect for autonomy (respect patient choices), justice (fair, equal treatment/distribution).
Key Terms
- Manifest vs. latent function
- Manifest = intended beneficial effect; latent = unintended, unrecognized beneficial effect (Merton).
- Power
- A form of influence over other people; central to conflict theory's explanation of social order.
- Symbols
- Things to which meaning is attached (language, gestures, body language); basis of symbolic interactionism.
- Gender roles / glass ceiling
- Expected gendered behaviors; the invisible barrier limiting women from top-level positions (feminist theory).
- Hidden curriculum
- The transmission of social norms, attitudes, and beliefs alongside a school's formal curriculum.
- Teacher expectancy
- Teachers tend to get what they expect from students — a self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal & Jacobson).
- Secularization vs. fundamentalism
- Secularization = shift away from religion toward rationality/science; fundamentalism = strict adherence to religious code.
- Mandated reporter
- Physicians are legally required to report suspected child and elder abuse; not required for domestic abuse between competent adults.
Six Sociological Theories
| Theory | Core Idea |
|---|---|
| Functionalism | Society as organism; harmony among parts maintains order |
| Conflict theory | Power differentials/competition for resources maintain order |
| Symbolic interactionism | Shared symbols (language, gesture) shape interaction (Mead/Blumer) |
| Social constructionism | Social realities built via collective agreement (Berger/Luckmann) |
| Rational choice / exchange | Cost-benefit decisions; exchange = same logic scoped to groups (Homans) |
| Feminist theory | Explains gender-based social inequality (gender roles, glass ceiling) |
Common MCAT Trap
- An unplanned positive side effect of a policy = latent function, not a dysfunction — dysfunction must be harmful, not just unintended.
- Harmony-based stability = functionalism; power/struggle-based stability = conflict theory — don't confuse which theory frames stability as which.
- Child/elder abuse = mandated reporting, no discretion. Domestic abuse between competent adults ≠ mandated, but still offer shelter/resources.
- A sect is not automatically a cult — it only becomes cult-level once philosophies turn extreme. Denomination → sect → cult is one spectrum of distance/extremity from the parent religion.
- Beneficence/nonmaleficence are opposite-direction obligations to the same patient (do good vs. don't harm); autonomy (one patient's choices) and justice (fair treatment across patients) operate at different scales.
Quick Recall
A new workplace policy meant to cut costs unexpectedly improves employee morale. What sociological concept describes the morale boost?
A passage frames social stability as the result of one group dominating others in competition for resources. Which theory?
A physician suspects an elderly patient is being neglected by their caregiver. Is reporting mandatory?
A teacher is told a student is 'gifted' (falsely) and the student's performance subsequently improves. What concept explains this?
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